Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
Quick Summary
Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was a theoretical physicist and major figure in history. Born in Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg (German Empire), Albert Einstein left a lasting impact through Special relativity (1905) and mass–energy equivalence (E = mc²).
Birth
March 14, 1879 Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg (German Empire)
Death
April 18, 1955 Princeton, New Jersey, United States
Nationality
German, Swiss, American
Occupations
Complete Biography
Childhood And Education
Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg (German Empire), to Hermann Einstein and Pauline Koch. The family soon moved to Munich, where young Albert attended Catholic primary school and the Luitpold Gymnasium. Though he disliked rote learning and rigid discipline, he developed a deep interest in mathematics, physics, and music (he played violin all his life). In 1894, his father’s business failed and the family moved to Italy, leaving Albert behind. He later joined them, abandoning German nationality in 1896. That same year, he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic (ETH Zürich), where he studied mathematics and physics and met Mileva Marić, his future wife.
Early Career
Graduating in 1900, Einstein struggled to find an academic job and eventually took a position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern in 1902. The work required analyzing technical designs and allowed him free time for theoretical research. He earned his Ph.D. in 1905 from the University of Zurich. With friends, he created the 'Olympia Academy,' an informal circle for philosophical and scientific discussions. These years laid the foundation for his revolutionary contributions.
Annus Mirabilis 1905
In 1905, Einstein published four groundbreaking papers in the Annalen der Physik: (1) on the photoelectric effect, proposing the light quantum; (2) on Brownian motion, confirming the existence of atoms; (3) on special relativity, unifying space and time; and (4) on mass–energy equivalence, leading to E = mc². Together, these works transformed physics and marked Einstein as one of the most brilliant minds of his generation.
Academic Career
Einstein gained increasing recognition, becoming a privatdozent in Bern (1908), professor in Zurich (1909), Prague (1911), and Zurich again (1912). In 1914, he moved to Berlin as a member of the Prussian Academy and director at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute. This prestigious position freed him from teaching duties and allowed him to focus entirely on research.
General Relativity
Between 1907 and 1915, Einstein developed the general theory of relativity, guided by the equivalence principle. He redefined gravity as a manifestation of spacetime curvature. After years of mathematical struggle, and in competition with Hilbert, he presented the final field equations in November 1915. The theory explained anomalies in Mercury’s orbit and predicted light deflection and gravitational redshift.
Confirmation And Fame
In 1919, Arthur Eddington’s eclipse expeditions confirmed Einstein’s predictions on light deflection. This made Einstein an international celebrity, hailed as a genius who revolutionized our understanding of the universe. Newspapers worldwide celebrated him, and he became a cultural icon far beyond academia.
Berlin Years
In the 1920s, Einstein continued work on unified field theories while contributing to quantum theory, including Bose–Einstein statistics and the concept of stimulated emission. He engaged in famous debates with Niels Bohr on the interpretation of quantum mechanics, objecting to indeterminism with his remark 'God does not play dice.' He also became an outspoken public intellectual, advocating pacifism, international cooperation, and cultural Zionism.
Exile And Princeton
With the rise of the Nazis in 1933, Einstein, as a Jew and outspoken intellectual, resigned from the Prussian Academy and emigrated to the United States. He joined the newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, where he remained until his death. Naturalized as a U.S. citizen in 1940, he retained his Swiss nationality. In 1939, he co-signed with Leó Szilárd a letter to President Roosevelt warning about nuclear fission. Although he did not work on the Manhattan Project, he later regretted his indirect role and became a vocal critic of nuclear weapons.
Political Engagement
Einstein defended civil rights in the United States, opposed segregation, supported conscientious objectors, and advocated world federalism as a means to prevent future wars. He combined moral conviction with pragmatic caution in the nuclear age, becoming one of the most respected intellectual voices of the 20th century.
Later Work
Einstein pursued a unified field theory until his death, aiming to link gravitation and electromagnetism. Though unsuccessful, his attempts inspired later theoretical work. He also contributed to discussions on the foundations of quantum mechanics, notably through the 1935 EPR paper with Podolsky and Rosen, which introduced the paradox of entanglement, later central to quantum information science.
Final Years And Legacy
Einstein died in Princeton on April 18, 1955, from an abdominal aortic aneurysm. His brain was preserved for study, sparking ethical debate. His scientific contributions—relativity, quantum theory, statistical physics—transformed physics. His moral legacy as a symbol of curiosity, creativity, and responsibility remains equally powerful. Einstein is remembered not only as the most iconic scientist of the 20th century but also as a conscience for humankind.
Achievements and Legacy
Major Achievements
- Special relativity (1905) and mass–energy equivalence (E = mc²)
- General relativity and gravitational field equations (1915)
- Photoelectric effect (light quanta); Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 (awarded 1922)
- Brownian motion explanation (1905), evidence for atoms
- Bose–Einstein statistics and condensate (theory) (1924–1925)
- EPR paper on quantum completeness (1935); debates on foundations of quantum mechanics
- Stimulated emission concept (foundation for the laser)
Historical Legacy
Einstein’s scientific ideas underpin modern cosmology, GPS, nuclear and laser technologies, and quantum science. His public voice helped shape debates on war, civil rights, and the ethics of research—making him an enduring symbol of scientific imagination and conscience.
Detailed Timeline
Major Events
Birth
March 14, 1879, Ulm (Württemberg, German Empire)
Annus Mirabilis
Four revolutionary papers in Bern
Academia
Associate professor in Zürich; later positions in Prague and Zürich
General Relativity
Field equations presented in Berlin
Eclipse Confirmation
Eddington’s observations confirm light bending
Nobel Prize
Awarded (conferred 1922) for the photoelectric effect
Exile
Leaves Nazi Germany; settles at IAS, Princeton
US Citizenship
Becomes an American citizen (retains Swiss)
Death
April 18, 1955, Princeton
Geographic Timeline
Famous Quotes
"Imagination is more important than knowledge."
"God does not play dice with the universe."
"The important thing is not to stop questioning."
External Links
Frequently Asked Questions
What did Einstein receive the Nobel Prize for?
For his services to theoretical physics, especially his explanation of the photoelectric effect.
What is E = mc²?
It expresses mass–energy equivalence: a small amount of mass corresponds to a large amount of energy (E equals mass times the speed of light squared).
When and where was he born and when did he die?
Born March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Germany; died April 18, 1955, in Princeton, United States.
Did Einstein work on the atomic bomb?
He did not work on the Manhattan Project; he co-signed a 1939 letter warning about nuclear chain reactions, and later advocated for nuclear control and peace.
Was Einstein religious?
He rejected personal theism, spoke of a 'cosmic religion' of wonder, admired Spinoza’s God (nature’s order), and opposed dogmatism.
Sources and Bibliography
Primary Sources
- Einstein A., La relativité : exposé vulgarisé (Relativity: The Special and the General Theory, 1916/1917)
- Einstein A., Annus mirabilis papers (1905)
- The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein (Einstein Papers Project)
Secondary Sources
- Pais A., Subtle Is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein ISBN: 9780192806727
- Isaacson W., Einstein: His Life and Universe ISBN: 9780743264747
External References
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